1.4         Literature Review.. 14

 

1.5         Materials and Methodology. 16

 

1.5.1           Limitation and Delimitation. 19

 

1.6         Thesis Outline. 20

 

1.7         Definition of Key Terms. 21

 

Chapter 2: Transition of Female Characters. 24

 

2.1         Current of French Thought. 25

 

2.1.1           French Feminism.. 26

 

2.1.2           Psychology and French philosophers. 31

 

2.1.3           Interactions between French thought and German thought 33

 

2.1.4           The relation of Feminism and Marxism.. 37

 

2.1.5           Lacan’s and Foucault’s Structuralism.. 38

 

2.1.6           The role of Simone de Beauvoir in French Feminism.. 42

 

2.1.7           Manifestation of Postmodernism and Post-structuralism.. 44

 

2.2         Luce Irigaray. 45

 

2.2.1           Irigaray’s concepts about the “female character”. 47

 

2.2.1.1       “The Other Woman”. 48

 

2.2.1.2       “Sexual Difference”. 52

 

2.2.1.3       Psychological repressions of women identity in West culture. 55

 

2.2.1.3.1     Repression and Schizophrenia. 55

 

2.2.1.3.2     Deconstruction of Patriarchal philosophy. 57

 

2.2.1.3.3     Sexual organs. 58

 

2.3         Helene Cixous. 59

 

2.3.1           Cixous’s philosophy and concepts about the female character. 60

 

2.3.1.1       Poetic writings about woman’s character. 60

 

2.3.1.2       Re- Born Woman. 65

 

2.3.1.3       Feminine Writing. 66

 

2.4         American and French Feminist literary criticism and art criticism.. 67

 

2.4.1           First waves of feminism.. 69

 

2.4.2           Second waves of feminism and Cixous’s and Irigaray’s concepts. 70

 

2.5         Proposing the theory of transformation of woman’s personality from Irigaray’s and Cixous’s viewpoints  72

 

 

 

Chapter 3: Female Characters of the Buried Child. 77

 

3.1         “Buried Child”. 78

 

 

3.2         Discourse of Characters and Post-Modern Attitude of Shepard. 79

 

3.3         Construction of “Buried Child”. 81

 

3.4         Psychoanalysis of women characters. 81

 

3.4.1           The character of “Catholic Bride” or the notion of multi-phallus in Irigaray’s and Cixous’s concepts. 83

 

3.4.2           “Halie”: the hysteric and repressed character. 85

 

3.4.3           Orgasmic pleasure and the character of Shelly. 88

 

3.4.4           Rape or alienation to femininity. 89

 

3.4.5           “Woman’s body” speaks. 91

 

Chapter 4: Female Characters of A Lie of the Mind & States of Shock. 92

 

4.1         “A Lie of the Mind”. 93

 

in Shepard’s Viewpoint. 97

 

4.3         The personality of “beaten Beth”. 104

 

4.3.1          Beth’s anxiety-Freud’s and Irigaray’s “lack of orgasm”. 106

 

4.4         Irigaray’s dialectics in women characters. 109

 

4.4.1           The relation of mother-daughter (Meg and Beth) 110

 

4.5         Cixous’s literature therapy and dialogues of woman personality. 111

 

4.6         “Transition of Personality” in female characters of A Lie of the Mind. 112

 

4.6.1           “Sally”: Conservative and unrepressed personality. 112

 

4.6.2           Meg and Lorraine: Non-Reborn Mothers. 113

 

4.7         “States of Shock”. 115

 

4.7.1           “White Woman, lack of male’s sex organ”. 117

 

4.7.2           “War, the absence woman identity”. 119

 

Chapter 5: Conclusion. 121

 

5.1         Summing up. 122

 

5.2         Findings. 126

 

5.2.1           Research Questions. 127

 

 

2.2.Conceptualizations of Motivation  11

 

2.3.The Influential Theories of L2 Motivation  13

 

2.3.1. The Social-Psychological Period (1959-1990) 14

 

2.3.1.1. Gardner’s Social-Psychological Theory  14

 

2.3.1.2. Keller’s (1983) Motivational-Design Model 20

 

2.3.2. The Cognitive-Situated Period (1990-2000) 21

 

2.3.2.1.Dörnyei’s (1994) Framework of L2 Motivation  22

 

2.3.2.2. Williams and Burden’s (1997) Model of L2 Motivation  25

 

2.3.2.3. Task Motivation  27

 

2.3.2.4. L2 Motivation Expectancy-Value Theories  28

 

2.3.2.4.1. The Concepts of Self-Confidence and Linguistic Self-Confidence  29

 

2.3.2.4.2. Language Anxiety  31

 

2.3.2.4.3. Attribution Theory of L2 Learning  32

 

2.3.2.5. Achievement Motivation Theory  33

 

2.3.2.6. Self-Determination Theory (SDT) 34

 

2.3.3. The Process-Oriented Period (2000 Onwards) 36

 

2.3.3.1.Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) Process Model of L2 Motivation  36

 

2.4. Significance of Motivation/ L2 Motivation  39

 

2.5. Types of Motivation and their Role in SL/FL Acquisition  40

 

2.5.1. Integrative Motivation  40

 

2.5.2. Instrumental Motivation  42

 

2.5.3. Intrinsic Motivation  43

 

2.5.3.1. The Intrinsic Needs of Students  44

 

2.5.3.1.1. The Need for Autonomy and Self-Determination  45

 

2.5.3.1.2. The Need for Competence  45

 

2.5.3.1.3. The Need for Belonging and Relatedness  46

 

2.5.3.1.4. The Need for Self-Esteem    46

 

2.5.3.1.5. The Need for Involvement and Enjoyment 46

 

2.5.3.2. Achieving Intrinsic Motivation in L2 Learning  47

 

2.5.3.3. The Role of Intrinsic Motivation in L2 Learning  47

 

2.5.4. Extrinsic Motivation  48

 

2.6. The L2 Motivational Self System   51

 

2.7. Motivational Strategies  53

 

2.7.1. Creating Basic Motivational Conditions  59

 

2.7.1.1. Demonstrating Proper Teacher Behaviour 59

 

2.7.1.1.1. Teacher’s Enthusiasm    59

 

2.7.1.1.2. Teacher’s Commitment 62

 

2.7.1.1.3. Teacher’s Care and Acceptance  63

 

2.7.1.1.4. Teacher’s Immediacy  65

 

2.7.1.2. Creating a Pleasant Classroom Atmosphere  66

 

 

2.7.1.3. Promoting Group Cohesiveness and Setting Group Norms  67

 

2.7.2.Generating Initial Motivation  70

 

2.7.2.1. Familiarising Learners with L2 Culture and L2 Related Values  70

 

2.7.2.2. Increasing Learners’ Expectancy of Success  71

 

2.7.2.3. Promoting Learners’ Positive Goals (Goal-Orientedness) and Realistic Beliefs  74

 

2.7.2.4. Relating Language Learning to Learners’ Needs and Goals  77

 

2.7.3. Maintaining and Protecting Motivation  78

 

2.7.3.1. Making Learning Stimulating and Enjoyable  78

 

2.7.3.2. Diminishing Learners’ Anxiety and Building up Their Self-Confidence  79

 

2.7.3.3. Promoting Learners’ Autonomy  82

 

2.7.4. Encouraging Positive Self-Evaluation  83

 

2.7.4.1. Promoting Learners’ Motivational Attributions  83

 

2.7.4.2. Providing Learners with Motivational Feedback  85

 

2.7.4.3. Increasing Learners’ Satisfaction  86

 

2.8. Current Status of English in Iran  90

 

CHAPTER THREE- METHOD   92

 

3.1. Overview   93

 

3.2. Participants  93

 

3.3. Instruments  94

 

3.4. Design  95

 

3.5.Procedure  95

 

3.5.1.Piloting  95

 

3.5.2.Data collection  96

 

3.6. Data Analysis  97

 

CHAPTER FOUR- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION   101

 

4.1. Overview   102

 

4.2. Research Question 1  102

 

4.2.1. Results  102

 

4.2.2. Discussions  109

 

4.3. Research Question 2  110

 

4.3.1. Results  110

 

4.3.2. Discussions  111

 

4.4. Research Question 3  112

 

4.4.1. Results  112

 

4.4.2. Discussions  114

 

4.5. Research Question 4  115

 

4.5.1. Results  115

 

4.5.2. Discussions  117

 

CHAPTER FIVE-CONCLUSION, PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH   118

 

5.1. Overview   119

 

5.2. Conclusion  119

 

5.3.Pedagogical Implications  121

 

5.4.Suggestions for Further research  126

 

References 137

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Appendixes

 

Appendix 1: English version of Frequency Questionnaires  127

 

Appendix 2: English version of Importance Questionnaires  130

 

Appendix 3: Farsi version of Frequency Questionnaires  133

 

Appendix 4: Farsi version of Importance Questionnaires  135

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Tables

 

Table 3.1. Gender of Participants  93

 

Table 3.2. EFL Teaching Experience of Participants  93

 

Table 3.3. Importance and Frequency Survey Results: Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies  99

 

Table 4.1. Importance Questionnaires Results:  Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies  103

 

Table 4.2. Comparison of the Final Rank Order of the Macro-strategies/scales Obtained in This Study and in Hungary (1998), Taiwan (2007) 110

 

Table 4.3.  Frequency Questionnaires Results:  Descriptive Statistics and Rankings of Ten Macro-strategies and Related Strategies  112

 

Table 4.4. Pearson Correlation Results between Overall Means of Motivational   Strategies of the Importance and Frequency Questionnaires  115

 

Table 4.5.  Pearson Correlation Results between Macro and Micro-strategies of the Importance and Frequency Questionnaires  116

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Figures

 

Figure 2.1. Gardner’s (1985) Socio-Educational Model of Second Language Acquisition (Gardner, 1985, p.199) 15

 

Figure 2.2. Components of Gardner’s Attitude/Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) (Gardner, 1985, 144) 17

 

Figure 2.3. Tremblay and Gardner’s (1995) Model of L2 Motivation (cited in Dörnyei& Ushioda, 2011, p.48  19

 

Figure 2.4. Dörnyei’s (1994) Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei, 1994a, p.280) 24

 

Figure 2.5. Williams and Burden’s (1997) Framework of L2 Motivation (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.54) 26

 

Figure 2.6. Schematic Representation of the Three Mechanisms Making up the Motivational Task- Processing System (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.96) 28

 

Figure 2.7. Dörnyei and Ottó’s (1998) Process Model of L2 Motivation (Dörnyei and Ottó, 1998, p.48) 38

 

Figure 2.8. Gardner’s Conceptualisation of the Integrative Motivation (Gardner, 1986, p.87) 41

 

Figure 2.9. Dörnyei’s L2 Motivational Self System (cited in Dörnyei & Usioda, 2011, p. 52) 52

 

Figure 2.10. The Components of Motivational L2 Teaching Practice (cited in Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.108) 58

 

Figure 2.11. Knight’s (2006) Model of Teacher’s Credibility (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p.108) 61

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

List of Abbreviations

 

TEFL: Teaching English as a Foreign Language

 

ESL: English as a Second Language

 

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

 

SL: Second Language

 

FL: Foreign Language

 

L2: Second Language

 

SDT: Self-Determination Theory

 

AMTB: Attitude/Motivation Test Battery

 

ARCS: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction

 

CET: Cognitive Evaluation Theory

 

ESOL: English for Speakers of Other Languages

 

MOLT: Motivation Orientation of Language Teaching

 

COLT: Communication Orientation of Language Teaching

 

LSP: Language for Specific Purposes

 

 

CHAPTER I: BACKGROUNG AND PURPOSE……………………………….1

 

1.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………2

 

1.2. Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………..5

 

1.3. Statement of the Research Question……………………………………….6

 

1.4. Statement of the Research Hypothesis…………………………………….6

 

1.5. Definition of Key Terms……………………………………………………7

 

1.6. Significance of the Study……………………………………………………8

 

1.7. Limitations, Delimitations, Assumptions………………………………….9

 

1.7.1. Limitations…………………………………………………………….9

 

1.7.2. Delimitations………………………………………………………….10

 

1.7.3. Assumption……………………………………………………………10

 

 

 

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE…………………..11

 

2.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………….12

 

2.2. Autonomy…………………………………………………………………12

 

2.2.1. Definitions of Autonomy……………………………………………….13

 

2.2.2. Learner Autonomy………………………………………………………14

 

2.2.3. What Does Autonomy Mean? …………………………………………………….18

 

2.2.4. Autonomous Learner’s Features……………………………………….20

 

2.2.5. Elements of Autonomous Learning……………………………………..20

 

2.2.6. Models for Autonomy……………………………………………………21

 

2.2.7. Kinds of Autonomy………………………………………………………22

 

2.2.8. Autonomy in the Classroom……………………………………………..23

 

2.2.9. Dimensions of Autonomy………………………………………………..25

 

2.3. Critical Thinking……………………………………………………………26

 

2.3.1. What is Critical Thinking?  ..……………………………………………..29

 

2.3.2. What Does Critical Thinking Mean?  ……………………………………30

 

2.3.3. A Five Step Model to Improve CT Skills…………………………………31

 

2.3.4. The Importance of Teaching CT in L2 Classrooms………………………35

 

2.3.5. Content-based Instructions for Improving CT Skills………………………35

 

2.3.6. Critical Thinker’s Features…………………………………………………35

 

2.3.7. Relationship Between CT and Learning……………………………………36

 

2.3.8. Strategies of Critical Thinking……………………………………………..38

 

2.4. Writing………………………………………………………………………..39

 

2.4.1. Writing Strategies…………………………………………………………..41

 

2.4.2. Writing Modes……………………………………………………………..42

 

2.4.3. Writing Process Approach and Product Approach…………………………43

 

2.4.4. General and Specific Components of Writing Tasks………………………44

 

 

 

CHAPTER III: METHOD………………………………………………………..48

 

 

3.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………….49

 

3.2. Participants………………………………………………………………….49

 

3.3. Instrumentation……………………………………………………………50

 

3.3.1. PET for Homogenization…………………………………………….50

 

3.3.2. Writing Posttest………………………………………………………51

 

3.3.3. Writing Scale/Rubric…………………………………………………52

 

3.3.4. Textbook……………………………………………………………..52

 

3.3.5. Materials for Practicing Autonomy and Critical Thinking…………52

 

3.4. Procedure………………………………………………………………….53

 

3.4.1. Practicing CT Techniques……………………………………………54

 

3.4.2. Practicing AUT Techniques…………………………………………56

 

3.5. Design……………………………………………………………………..58

 

3.6. Statistical  Analysis……………………………………………………….58

 

 

 

CHAPTER  IV:  RESULTS  AND  DISCUSSION…………………………………60

 

4.1. Introduction………………………………………………………………..61

 

4.2. Descriptive Statistics of the Pre-treatment Writing Scores………………67

 

4.3. Descriptive Statistics of the Raters’ Scores to the CT Posttest Writing…69

 

4.4. Descriptive Statistics of the Posttest Writing Scores…………………….73

 

4.5. Testing the Null Hypothesis………………………………………………74

 

4.6. Discussion………………………………………………………………….75

 

 

 

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS………78

 

5.1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………79

 

5.2. Restatement  of  the  Hypothesis…………………………………………..79

 

5.3. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………79

 

5.4. Pedagogical Implications……………………………………………………80

 

5.5. Implications for EFL Teachers, Learners, and Syllabus Designers………81

 

5.5.1. Implications for EFL Teachers…………………………………………81

 

5.5.2. Implications for EFL Learners……………………………………….82

 

5.5.3. Implications for EFL Syllabus Designers…………………………….83

 

5.6. Suggestions for Further Studies……………………………………………83

 

REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………85

 

APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………123

 

Appendix A:  PTE 1 (used for homogenization)………………………………124

 

Appendix B:  PET 2 (used  as  post-treatment  test)………………………….144

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER  I

 

 

 

BACKGROUD  AND  PURPOSE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.1. Introduction

 

Education  and  learning  need  some  special  techniques  to  indulge  learners  more  deeply  and  efficiently-  techniques  that  involve  learners  to  become  more  independent  and  at  the  same  time  more  thoughtful. It  is  a  rather  recent  issue  that  educators  are  focusing  their  attention  to  critical  thinking  and  autonomy  on  different  skills,  although “ critical  thinking  is  as  integral  part  of  education  and  training  in  schools  of  foreign  and  second  language  instruction” (  Shangarffam  &  Mamipour,  2011,  p.1 ),  and  so  is  autonomy.

 

 

 

Writing  is  one  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  conveying  ideas  and  thoughts  to  others,  so  learning  to  write  is   important  because  without  it  education,  and  more  important,  communications  will  be  defective  and  will  face  problems.

 

 

 

According  to  Pemberton  and  Nix  (2012),  writing,  autonomy,  and  critical  thinking  seem  to  be  linked  to  each  other,  and  proficiency  in  writing  can  be  a  sign  of  students’  autonomy,    critical  thinking  ,and  reasoning  skills  on  the  other  hand.  Critical thinking  and  autonomy  are  both  considered  desirable  educational  goals.  Raya,  Lamb,  and  Vieira  (2007),  mention  that  “The competence  to  think  critically  is  coextensive  with  the  notion  of  autonomy  and  self-sufficiency”  (p.43).  And  in  the  same  way,  Little  (1991)  explains  autonomy  as  an  ability  “for  detachment,  critical  reflection,  decision  making,  and  independent  action”(p.4).  Therefore,  it  is  important  that  teachers  help  students  develop  exploring  ways  for  autonomy  and  critical  thinking  (Pemberton  &  Nix,  2012).  Consequently,  it  seems  that  teaching  learners  to  become  autonomous  and  at  the  same time critical  thinkers  is  probably  a vital  factor  in  their  progress.

 

 

 

 

 

In  line  with  the  ongoing  development  in  communication  and  definitely  writing,  the  methods  that  teachers  use  to  help  foster  learners’  autonomy,  and  make  a  “paradigm  shift  from  teacher-centered  to  learner-centered  instruction”  (Jacobs  &  Farrell,  2002,  12)  are  considered  very  important  ,and  as  Wu  Li-li  (2008)  mentions   with  the  growing  need  of  language  teaching  in  communication-oriented  way  nowadays,  language  teaching  is  facing  a  challenge  and  is  being  substituted  by  the  learner-centered  one.  As  a  result, the  learner-centered  approach  made  the  concept  of  learners’  autonomy      emerge (Bagheri  &  Aeen,  2011).

 

Nowadays,  learner  autonomy  is  considered  as  “an  unquestionable  goal  and  integral  part  of  language  learning  methodologies  throughout  the  world.  Large  amounts  of  time,  energy,  and  money  are  spent  on  its  promotion  and  implementation”  (Reinders,  2000,  p.2).  In  fact  learner  autonomy  seems  to  become  important  because  of  the  motive  that  it  creates  in  learners.  Learning  autonomy  emphasizes  language  learners’  role  as  an  active  participant  in  his/her  learning  who  has  “a  choice  as  what  and  how  of  the  curriculum  can  be  used  in  learning”,  and  also,  “has  a  responsible  feeling  for  his/her  own  learning”  (Jacobs  &  Farrell,  2001,  p.7).

 

 

 

According  to  Bagheri  and  Aeen  (2011),  although  there  are  very  trivial  differences  in  the  way  that  scholars  and  language  teachers  express  their  understanding  of  learners’  autonomy,    they  all  agree  with the  importance  of  autonomy  in  motivating  learners,  and  the  result  is    better  and  effective  work  of  autonomous  learners.  They  added  that  autonomous  learners  are  more  initiative  and  creative  in  learning,  and  this  leads  to  more  useful  classroom  instruction.  When  learners  have  the  freedom  to  choose  the  kind  of  curriculum  and  instruction,  the  result  is  choosing  the  best  that  matches  their  learning  styles  and  preferences  and  finally  more  effective  learning  happens.   According  to  Benson  (2010),  “When  we  talk  about  autonomy,  we  refer  more  to  a  certain  kind  of  relationship  between  the  student  and  the  learning  process.”  (p.79).  To  be  autonomous  means  “to  be  directed  by  considerations,  desires,  conditions,  and  characteristics  that  are  not  simply  imposed  externally  upon  one,  but  are  part  of  what  can  somehow  be  considered  one’s  authentic  self” (Christman,  2008, p.1).

 

 

2.1. Introduction. 19

 

2.2. Translation. 21

 

2.3. Culture. 25

 

2.4. Language and Culture. 29

 

2.5. Translation and Culture. 33

 

2.6. Translation Problems 36

 

2.6.1. Linguistics Differences. 37

 

2.6.2. Social Differences. 41

 

2.6.3. Cultural Differences. 42

 

2.7. Presuppositions 47

 

2.7.1. Philosophical Presupposition. 48

 

2.7.2. Semantic Presupposition. 48

 

2.7.3. Pragmatic Presupposition. 49

 

2.7.4. Cultural Presupposition. 50

 

2.8. Cultural Presuppositions 50

 

2.9. Different Classifications of Cultural Presuppositions 52

 

2.9.1. Newmark’s Classification. 53

 

2.9.2. Thriveni’s Classification. 58

 

2.9.3. Pavlovic’s Classification. 60

 

2.10. Translation Strategies 63

 

2.11. Translation Strategies for Cultural Presuppositions 66

 

2.11.1. House’s Strategies. 67

 

2.11.2. Newmark’s Strategies. 68

 

2.11.3. Baker’s Strategies. 72

 

2.11.4. Hervey and Higgins’ Strategies. 74

 

2.11.5. Aixela’s Strategies. 77

 

2.11.6. Vinay and Darblenet’s Strategies. 81

 

2.11.7. Wiersema’s Strategies. 82

 

2.12. Concluding Points 83

 

Chapter III: Methodology.. 84

 

3.1. Introduction. 85

 

3.2. Corpus 86

 

3.3. Theoretical Framework. 88

 

3.4. Design. 97

 

3.5. Procedure. 97

 

3.6. Data Collection. 98

 

3.7. Data Analysis 98

 

Chapter IV: Results and Discussions. 100

 

4.1. Introduction. 101

 

4.2. Description of the Data. 101

 

 

4.2.1. Cultural Presuppositions. 102

 

4.2.1.1. Ecology. 102

 

4.2.1.2. Material Culture (Artifacts) 102

 

4.2.1.3. Social Culture. 104

 

4.2.1.4. Organizations, Customs, Ideas. 105

 

4.2.1.5. Gestures and Habits. 107

 

4.2.2. Translation Strategies. 108

 

4.2.2.1. Transference. 108

 

4.2.2.2. Naturalization. 109

 

4.2.2.3. Cultural Equivalent 110

 

4.2.2.4. Functional Equivalent 110

 

4.2.2.5. Descriptive Equivalent 111

 

4.2.2.6. Synonymy. 112

 

4.2.2.7. Through-translation. 113

 

4.2.2.8. Shifts or Transposition. 114

 

4.2.2.9. Reduction and Expansion. 115

 

4.2.2.10. Couplets, Triplets, and Quadruplets. 116

 

4.2.2.11. Notes, Additions, and Glosses. 117

 

4.3. Analysis of the Data. 121

 

Chapter V: Conclusion, Implications, and Suggestions for Further Research.. 126

 

5.1. Introduction. 127

 

5.2. Conclusion. 128

 

5.3. Pedagogical Implications 130

 

5.4. Suggestions for Further Research. 132

 

References 134

 

Appendixes 139

 

 

 

 

List of Tables

 

Table 1: Food. 18

 

Table 2: Clothes. 18

 

Table 3: Housing. 18

 

Table 4: Transport 18

 

Table 5: Work. 18

 

Table 6: Leisure. 18

 

Table 7: Political and Administrative. 18

 

Table 8: Religious. 18

 

Table 9: Artistic. 18

 

Table 10: Historical Terms. 18

 

Table 11: Gestures and Habits. 18

 

Table 12: Transference. 18

 

Table 13: Naturalization. 18

 

Table 14: Cultural Equivalent 18

 

Table 15: Functional Equivalent 18

 

Table 16: Descriptive Equivalent 18

 

Table 17: Synonymy. 18

 

Table 18: Through-translation. 18

 

Table 19: Shifts. 18

 

Table 20: Reduction. 18

 

Table 21: Couplets. 18

 

Table 22: Triplets. 18

 

Table 23: Additions. 18

 

Table 24: Notes. 18

 

Table 25: Overall frequencies of cultural presuppositions. 18

 

Table 26: Overall frequencies of translation strategies. 18

 

Table 27: All cultural presuppositions separately for each short story. 18

 

Table 28: All cultural presuppositions and their translation strategies. 18

 

 

 

List of Graphs

 

Graph 1: Percentages of Cultural Presuppositions. 18

 

Graph 2: Percentages of Translation Strategies. 18

 

 

 

 

 

 

2.4. Scope and Application…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19

 

2.5. The Performatives……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 20

 

2.5.1. Explicit and Implicit Performatives…………………………………………………………………………. 22

 

2.6. Felicity Conditions………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 24

 

2.7. The Locutionary, Illocutionary and Perlocutionary Acts………………………………………………. 28

 

2.7.1. Locutionary Acts………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29

 

2.7.2. Illocutionary Acts…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 31

 

2.7.3. Perlocutionary Acts………………………………………………………………………………………………. 33

 

2.8. Cooperative Learning………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34

 

2.8.1. Social Interdependence Perspective………………………………………………………………………… 37

 

2.8.2. Cognitive Development Perspectives………………………………………………………………………. 38

 

2.8.3. Behavioral Social Perspectives……………………………………………………………………………….. 38

 

2.8.3.1. Positive Interdependence……………………………………………………………………………………. 39

 

2.8.3.2. Individual Accountability/Personal Responsibility…………………………………………………. 40

 

2.8.3.3. Face-to-Face Promotive Interaction……………………………………………………………………… 41

 

2.8.3.4. Teamwork Skills………………………………………………………………………………………………… 42

 

2.8.3.5. Group Processing ………………………………………………………………………………………………. 42

 

2.8.4. Structuring Cooperative Learning…………………………………………………………………………… 45

 

2.8.5. Interactions in Groups…………………………………………………………………………………………… 47

 

2.8.6. Students Perceptions of Cooperative Learning…………………………………………………………. 50

 

2.9. Competitive Learning………………………………………………………………………………………………. 52

 

CHAPTER III: Methodology…………………………………………………………………………………………. 57

 

3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 58

 

3.2. Participants…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 58

 

3.3. Instrumentation………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 59

 

3.3.1 Preliminary English Test (PET)……………………………………………………………………………….. 59

 

3.3.2 Discourse Completion Test……………………………………………………………………………………… 60

 

3.3.2.1 Reliability and validity of the instrument……………………………………………………………….. 63

 

3.4. Materials………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63

 

3.5. Procedure……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 63

 

3.5.1. Pretest ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 63

 

3.5.2. Treatment…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 64

 

3.5.3. Posttest……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 66

 

3.6. Design……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 67

 

3.7. Statistical Analyses………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 67

 

CHAPTER IV: Results and Discussions………………………………………………………………………….. 68

 

4.1 Pilot study of Preliminary English Test (PET)……………………………………………………………… 69

 

4.2. Subject-Selection Statistics………………………………………………………………………………………. 70

 

4.3 Pilot study of MCDCT …………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70

 

4.4. Proficiency Test (PET)…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71

 

 

4.5. Pretest of Speech acts………………………………………………………………………………………………. 73

 

4.6 Post test of speech acts……………………………………………………………………………………………… 73

 

4.7 Testing Assumptions………………………………………………………………………………………………… 74

 

4.8. Empirical Validity…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 76

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4.9. Reliability Indices……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 77

 

4.10 Reliability of the Writing Tasks in the PET test………………………………………………………….. 77

 

4.11. Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 79

 

CHAPTER V: Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications…………………………………………………… 83

 

5.1 Restatement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………………. 84

 

5.2 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 86

 

5.3 Pedagogical Implications…………………………………………………………………………………………… 87

 

5.4. Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………………………………………………. 88

 

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 91

 

APPENDIX A……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 105

 

APPENDIXI B…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 128

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 

 

 

Table 4.1 Descriptive statistics of PET pilot study…………………………………………………………….. 89

 

Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics of subject selection……………………………………………………………. 70

 

Table 4.3 descriptive statistics of pilot study of MCDCT pre/post test ………………………………… 70

 

Table 4.4 Descriptive statistics of PET by groups………………………………………………………………. 71

 

Table 4.5 Independent samples t-test of PET scores…………………………………………………………… 72

 

Table 4.6 Descriptive statistics of speech acts posttest by groups………………………………………… 73

 

Table 4.7 normality tests…………………………………………………………………………………………………. 74

 

Table 4.8 Independent samples t-test of Posttest scores……………………………………………………… 75

 

Table 4.9 Pearson Correlation PET with Pretest and Posttest of Speech Acts……………………….. 76

 

Table 4.10 K-R21 Reliability…………………………………………………………………………………………… 77

 

Table 4.11Inter-Rater Reliability of the Writing Pretest …………………………………………………….. 78

 

Table 4.12 Intra-Rater Reliability of the Writing Pretest…………………………………………………….. 78

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

• Introduction

 

It is generally recognized that the goal of language teaching is to develop learner’s ability to communicate appropriately in a given target language and culture. This means that it is not enough for teaching practices to exclusively focus on the features of the target language linguistic system. Otherwise, inappropriate use of language can lead to pragmatic failure and those speakers who do not use pragmatically appropriate language run the risk of appearing uncooperative at very least or more seriously, rude or uncultured (Bardovi-Harlig, Hartford, Mahan-Taylor, Morgam, & Reynols, 1991).

 

Pragmatic ability in a second or foreign language is part of a nonnative speaker’s (NNS) communicative competence and therefore has to be located in a model of communicative ability (Savignon, 1991). In Bachman’s model (1990, p. 87ff), ‘language competence’ is subdivided into two components, ‘organizational competence’ and ‘pragmatic competence’. Organizational competence comprises knowledge of linguistic units and the rules of joining them together at the levels of sentence (‘grammatical competence’) and discourse (‘textual competence’). Pragmatic competence subdivides into ‘illocutionary competence’ and ‘sociolinguistic competence’. ‘Illocutionary competence’ can be glossed as ‘knowledge of communicative action and how to carry it out’. The term ‘communicative action’ is often more accurate than the more familiar term ‘speech act’ because communicative action is neutral between the spoken and written mode, and the term acknowledges the fact that communicative action can also be implemented by silence or non-verbally. ‘Sociolinguistic competence’ comprises the ability to use language appropriately according to context. It thus includes the ability to select communicative acts and appropriate strategies to implement them depending on the current status of the ‘conversational contract’ (Fraser, 1990).